🦠Outbreaks
🌍 Türkiye•24 Aug 2026
FMD surveillance highlights the importance of rapid outbreak response
Recent developments underline the importance of surveillance, early detection and coordinated disease-control measures.
FMD Intelligence
FMD
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is a highly contagious, single-stranded RNA viral infection caused by an Aphthovirus of the Picornaviridae family that inflicts severe economic and agricultural losses globally by primarily targeting cloven-hoofed domestic and wild animals—such as cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and deer. The disease spreads rapidly through direct contact with infected bodily secretions, contaminated inanimate objects via indirect contact, and airborne transmission over considerable distances depending on meteorological conditions. Following an incubation period typically ranging from 2 to 14 days, the virus causes widespread outbreaks that remain endemic across vast regions of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, whereas strict quarantine and biosecurity measures allow regions like North America, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and much of Europe to maintain official FMD-free status (World Organisation for Animal Health, 2023; Alexandersen et al., 2003).
FMD
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
A highly contagious livestock disease
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Disease Overview
Understanding FMD
Foot-and-Mouth Disease is one of the most contagious viral diseases affecting livestock. Because the virus can spread rapidly, an outbreak can have a significant impact on animal health, farm productivity and livestock trade.
Key Point
Early recognition and rapid disease-control measures are important because FMD can spread quickly among susceptible animals.
Disease Intelligence
Explore the Key Questions
Select a question below to explore detailed information about the disease.
Clinical Signs
Recognizing FMD Symptoms
Signs & Symptoms
What should you look for?
✓Fever
✓Excessive salivation
✓Mouth blisters
✓Foot lesions
✓Lameness
✓Reduced appetite
✓Reduced milk production
✓Severe disease in young animals
FMD Timeline
Follow the typical progression of Foot-and-Mouth Disease — from initial exposure to rapid transmission.
Key Takeaway
FMD spreads extremely efficiently, primarily through infected animals, contaminated materials, and infectious aerosols. Unlike diseases that depend on a specific insect or animal vector, FMD is mainly transmitted through direct and indirect contact, with environmental conditions and livestock movements strongly influencing how quickly an outbreak expands.
Transmission & Vector Intelligence
Understand how FMD moves between animals and farms, which transmission routes matter most and how environmental and movement factors can increase risk.
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Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV) is transmitted predominantly by blood-feeding arthropods through mechanical transmission. Flies, mosquitoes and ticks can transfer virus-containing blood between infected and susceptible cattle.
✓Blood-feeding flies can mechanically transmit LSDV
✓Mosquitoes may contribute to virus transmission
✓Ticks may also contribute to transmission
✓Vector abundance and activity influence transmission opportunities
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Blood-feeding arthropods are the most important transmission drivers for LSD. Vectors can acquire LSDV-containing blood from infected cattle and mechanically transfer the virus during subsequent feeding.
✓Flies
✓Mosquitoes
✓Ticks
✓Mechanical transfer of virus-containing blood
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Environmental conditions can influence vector abundance and activity. Warm and humid conditions may favour vector activity and have been associated with increased LSD incidence in epidemiological studies.
✓Temperature can influence vector activity
✓Humidity can influence vector abundance and activity
✓Seasonal conditions can alter transmission opportunities
✓Environmental conditions can influence outbreak risk
Movement of infected cattle can transport LSDV into previously unaffected farms, markets and regions. Once introduced, local blood-feeding vectors can facilitate further transmission.
✓Infected cattle can carry LSDV to new locations
✓Transport can connect distant farms and regions
✓Livestock markets can increase exposure opportunities
✓Vector exposure after introduction can drive local transmission
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Transmission Risk
HOW DOES FMD SPREAD?
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is highly contagious and can spread rapidly between susceptible livestock through direct contact, airborne transmission, contaminated materials, animal movement and the farm environment. Select a factor to explore it.
5 KEY RISK FACTORS
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Key Intelligence
FMD transmission risk increases when infected animals, susceptible animals, contaminated materials and movement networks interact. Strong farm biosecurity, movement management and early detection are therefore central to reducing spread.
FMD Vaccine Intelligence
Understand why FMD vaccines can fail and how virus mismatch, waning immunity, cold-chain breaches, administration errors, antigenic variation and host or environmental factors can influence protection.
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FMD vaccines stimulate the animal's immune system to recognize relevant viral antigens and develop protective antibodies. Effective protection depends on an appropriate vaccine match, adequate immune response and correct vaccination practices.
✓Inactivated FMD virus antigens stimulate the immune system
✓Recognition of relevant viral antigens
✓Activation of B cells and T-cell responses
✓Production of FMDV-specific antibodies
✓Development of immunological memory
✓Protection depends on adequate antibody levels and vaccine matching
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FMD control programmes primarily use inactivated vaccines formulated against relevant FMD virus serotypes and strains. Because FMD has multiple serotypes and antigenically diverse viruses, vaccine selection must reflect the circulating field virus.
✓Inactivated FMD vaccines are commonly used
✓Vaccines may target specific FMD virus serotypes
✓Vaccine strains should be selected according to local epidemiology
✓Antigenic matching is important for effective protection
✓Booster schedules help maintain protective immunity
Protection depends on both the antigenic match between the vaccine and circulating field virus and the strength and duration of the animal's immune response.
✓Good antigenic match improves the likelihood of protection
✓Adequate antibody response is essential
✓Protective antibody levels can decline over time
✓Booster vaccination may be required to maintain immunity
✓Protection can vary according to animal and field conditions
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Vaccine Performance
WHY CAN VACCINE FAIL?
FMD vaccine performance can be affected by viral variation, declining immunity, cold-chain breaches, administration errors and host or environmental factors. Understanding these factors helps identify possible reasons for vaccine failure.
6 KEY FACTORS
Key Factors
Select a factor to explore its details.
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Key Intelligence
FMD vaccine failure is usually multifactorial. Effective protection depends on an appropriate vaccine–field virus match, maintenance of protective immunity, strict 2°C–8°C cold-chain conditions, correct dosing and administration, appropriate vaccination timing, and consideration of host and environmental factors.
Vaccine Failure Case Studies
Explore representative field scenarios that show how vaccine matching, immunity, vaccine handling and viral pressure can influence FMD control.
Explore Case Studies
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Part 08 • Global Disease Surveillance
Global FMD Outbreaks
Explore the major Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) events that shaped modern prevention, control, vaccination and eradication strategies.
Surveillance dashboard
Global FMD situation overview
1 Active5 Resolved8 Events tracked
Global Disease Timeline
Major FMD Events
Key historical and recent FMD events that shaped modern disease surveillance, prevention, vaccination, movement control and outbreak-response strategies.
Explore Timeline
Surveillance Records
Regional PPR Events
8 records shown
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Global Intelligence
What the Global FMD History Tells Us
FMD history demonstrates that animal movement, international trade, wildlife reservoirs, high-density livestock production, gaps in biosecurity and susceptible populations can drive transboundary spread. Sustained surveillance, vaccination, movement management, early detection, rapid response and coordinated international preparedness remain essential components of FMD control.
Global FMD News
Track the latest developments in FMD outbreaks, vaccines, policy and scientific research around the world.
Feed Status
Monitoring Active
Featured🦠
Outbreak
Global FMD Intelligence
🌍 Türkiye•24 Aug 2026
Latest Update24 Aug 2026
FMD surveillance highlights the importance of rapid outbreak response
Recent developments underline the importance of surveillance, early detection and coordinated disease-control measures.
🌍 TürkiyeOutbreaks
Latest
Latest Updates
💉Vaccines
🌍 India•22 Aug 2026
Vaccine matching remains central to FMD control strategies
Vaccine selection and antigenic matching continue to be important considerations in regional FMD vaccination programmes.
FMD Intelligence
🌍Policy
🌍 Global•20 Aug 2026
International coordination strengthens livestock disease preparedness
Cross-border coordination, surveillance and movement controls remain important tools for reducing transboundary disease risks.
FMD Intelligence
🔬Research
🌍 Global•18 Aug 2026
Researchers continue monitoring FMD virus evolution
Ongoing research focuses on virus evolution, antigenic characteristics and improving disease surveillance.
FMD Intelligence
⚠️Outbreaks
🌍 Middle East•16 Aug 2026
Regional FMD monitoring remains a priority
Veterinary authorities continue strengthening monitoring and reporting systems to identify emerging disease activity.
FMD Intelligence
🧬Vaccines
🌍 Africa•14 Aug 2026
Vaccination programmes focus on improving population protection
Improving vaccination coverage and maintaining effective vaccination schedules remain key components of FMD control.
FMD Intelligence
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Intelligence Feed
News content should be connected to verified veterinary authorities, international organisations, research institutions and trusted news sources. Dates, countries and outbreak information should be refreshed automatically when a live feed is connected.
FMD By The Numbers
Key facts and figures that explain how Foot-and-Mouth Disease spreads, affects animals and creates global livestock risks.
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01Rapid
Transmission
FMD spreads quickly between susceptible livestock and can move rapidly through direct and indirect transmission routes.
⏱️
022–14days
Incubation Period
The incubation period is typically 2–14 days, depending on the virus strain, exposure dose and host.
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037serotypes
Serotypes
FMD virus has seven recognised serotypes: O, A, C, Asia 1, SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3.
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04Multiple
Hosts
FMD affects cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, buffalo and other susceptible cloven-hoofed animals.
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05Up to 100%
Morbidity
In highly susceptible populations, most exposed animals may become infected, with morbidity reaching up to 100%.
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Transmission
How quickly can FMD move?
FMD is highly contagious and can spread rapidly between susceptible livestock through direct contact and contaminated materials. Major routes include livestock movement, animal products, people, vehicles, equipment and other contaminated materials.
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Infected Animal
💧
Virus & Secretions
🚚
Movement
🚜
Equipment & Vehicles
👥
People
🧰
Contaminated Materials
🐄
Susceptible Host
Economic & Farm Impact
Why FMD matters
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Animal productivity
FMD can cause significant reductions in milk and meat production.
💀
Animal deaths
Deaths may occur, particularly in young animals affected by severe cardiac damage.
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Movement restrictions
Livestock movement may be restricted during outbreaks to reduce disease transmission.
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Control costs
Disease-control measures, surveillance and outbreak response can substantially increase costs.
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Trade restrictions
FMD outbreaks can have major consequences for international livestock and animal-product trade.
Virus Diversity
The 7 FMD Serotypes
FMD virus consists of seven immunologically distinct serotypes. Immunity to one serotype does not necessarily provide protection against another.
O • A • C • Asia 1 • SAT 1 • SAT 2 • SAT 3
OFMD
One of the most widely reported FMD serotypes.
AFMD
Important serotype requiring appropriate vaccine matching.
CFMD
One of the seven recognised FMD serotypes.
Asia 1FMD
Historically important across parts of Asia and surrounding regions.
SAT 1FMD
Southern African Territories serotype.
SAT 2FMD
Southern African Territories serotype.
SAT 3FMD
Southern African Territories serotype.
O
Serotype O
One of the seven recognised FMD serotypes and widely reported in different regions.
A
Serotype A
An important FMD serotype requiring appropriate antigenic matching for vaccination.
C
Serotype C
One of the seven recognised FMD serotypes.
AS
Asia 1
A recognised FMD serotype historically associated with parts of Asia and surrounding regions.
SAT1
SAT 1
Southern African Territories serotype associated primarily with regions of Africa.
SAT2
SAT 2
Southern African Territories serotype associated primarily with regions of Africa.
SAT3
SAT 3
Southern African Territories serotype associated primarily with regions of Africa.
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Rapid transmission
FMD can spread quickly between susceptible livestock, making early detection and rapid control measures essential.
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Seven serotypes
FMD has seven recognised serotypes, and immunity to one serotype does not necessarily protect against another.
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Global livestock risk
FMD affects multiple cloven-hoofed hosts and remains an important livestock disease across parts of Africa, Asia and the Middle East.
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Major economic impact
FMD can cause production losses, animal deaths, control costs, movement restrictions and trade disruption.
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Early detection matters
Rapid diagnosis and reporting are critical for effective containment and outbreak response.
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Vaccination is important
Vaccination is a key tool for reducing transmission and protecting susceptible livestock when appropriately matched to circulating virus strains.
ℹ️
Numerical ranges shown here are intended as general disease-intelligence indicators. Exact transmission, incubation, morbidity, mortality and host susceptibility can vary by virus strain, animal species, exposure dose, exposure route and epidemiological conditions.
Research & Evidence
Explore scientific literature, international surveillance, technical reports and research evidence related to Foot-and-Mouth Disease.
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Evidence Base
Research • Surveillance • Reports
📄Scientific Papers
🌍WOAH
🌾FAO
🔬Research
📊Reports
01
📚
Scientific Literature
Peer-reviewed FMD research provides evidence on pathogenesis, diagnosis, virus shedding, transmission, airborne spread and host susceptibility.
02
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International Surveillance
WOAH and FAO provide structured information on FMD outbreaks, epidemiology, serotypes, emerging risks and international disease-control activities.
03
📊
Technical Reports
Technical assessments and control strategies translate surveillance findings into practical recommendations for prevention, preparedness and response.
WOAHHighWOAH
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Foot-and-Mouth Disease
World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH)
WOAH Disease Information
Provides authoritative information on FMD disease definition, susceptible hosts, serotypes, clinical signs, incubation, mortality, surveillance and official disease-free status.
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Useful For
Disease definition • Hosts • Serotypes • Clinical signs • Incubation • Mortality • Surveillance • Disease-free status
Current Disease InformationExplore
WOAHHighWOAH
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Foot and Mouth Disease — Technical Disease Card
World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH)
Technical Disease Card, Paris. 2025.
Technical reference covering FMD epidemiology, transmission, clinical signs, diagnosis, prevention and disease-control measures.
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Useful For
Epidemiology • Transmission • Clinical signs • Diagnosis • Prevention • Control
2025Explore
FAOHighFAO
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Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
FAO Animal Health
Provides information on the global FMD situation, emerging risks, surveillance activities and current FMD events.
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Useful For
Global disease situation • Emerging risks • Surveillance • Current FMD events
Current InformationExplore
FAO/EuFMDHighFAO
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Global Situation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease
FAO/EuFMD — European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Global FMD Situation
Describes the global distribution of FMD, endemic regions, regional epidemiological pools and international approaches to disease control.
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Useful For
Global distribution • Endemic regions • Epidemiological pools • International control
Global SituationExplore
FAO/EuFMDHighFAO
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Global FMD Control Strategy
FAO/EuFMD — European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Global FMD Control Strategy
Supports international coordination, regional control programmes and the Progressive Control Pathway for Foot-and-Mouth Disease.
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Useful For
International coordination • Regional control • Progressive Control Pathway • Disease management
Control StrategyExplore
FAOHighFAO
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Rapid Risk Assessment: Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Serotype SAT1
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Rapid Risk Assessment: FMD Virus Serotype SAT1. Published 4 March 2026.
Assesses the recent emergence of FMD virus serotype SAT1, transboundary spread risks, contributing factors and preparedness recommendations.
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Useful For
SAT1 emergence • Transboundary spread • Risk factors • Preparedness • Response
2026Explore
FAOHighFAO
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FMD Serotype SAT1 Alert: Situation Update and Recommendations
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Situation Update and Recommendations for Prevention, Preparedness and Response in the Near East and West Eurasia. 2025.
Provides information on SAT1 emergence in the Near East and highlights vaccination, biosecurity and surveillance as important components of preparedness and response.
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Useful For
SAT1 emergence • Vaccination • Biosecurity • Surveillance • Preparedness • Response
2025Explore
Scientific LiteratureHighScientific Papers
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The pathogenesis and diagnosis of foot-and-mouth disease
Alexandersen, S., Zhang, Z., Donaldson, A. I., & Garland, A. J. M.
Journal of Comparative Pathology, 129(1), 1–36. 2003.
DOI: 10.1016/S0021-9975(03)00041-0
A detailed scientific review covering FMD pathogenesis, diagnosis, virus excretion, immune responses and the carrier state.
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Useful For
Pathogenesis • Diagnosis • Virus excretion • Immune response • Carrier state
2003Explore
Scientific LiteratureHighScientific Papers
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Studies of quantitative parameters of virus excretion and transmission in pigs and cattle experimentally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus
Alexandersen, S., et al.
Journal of Comparative Pathology, 129(4), 268–282. 2003.
Experimental research examining quantitative virus excretion and transmission in experimentally infected pigs and cattle, including differences between host species.
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Useful For
Host susceptibility • Virus shedding • Transmission • Pigs • Cattle • Species differences
2003Explore
Scientific LiteratureHighScientific Papers
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Airborne transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus from Burnside Farm during the 2001 epidemic in the United Kingdom
Gloster, J., et al.
Veterinary Record, 152(17), 525–533. 2003.
DOI: 10.1136/vr.152.17.525
Research examining airborne transmission of FMDV during the 2001 UK epidemic and the influence of meteorological conditions on disease spread.
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Useful For
Airborne transmission • Aerosol spread • Meteorological influences • FMD epidemic
2003Explore
Scientific LiteratureHighScientific Papers
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The 2001 epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease in the United Kingdom: epidemiological and meteorological case studies
Gloster, J., et al.
Veterinary Record, 156(25), 793–803. 2005.
Provides epidemiological and meteorological evidence relating to airborne transmission during the 2001 UK FMD epidemic.
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Useful For
Epidemiology • Meteorology • Airborne transmission • UK 2001 epidemic
2005Explore
Scientific LiteratureHighScientific Papers
💨
Re-assessing the likelihood of airborne spread of foot-and-mouth disease at the start of the 1967–1968 UK epidemic
Gloster, J., et al.
Epidemiology & Infection. 2006.
DOI: 10.1017/S0950268805004073
Reassesses the likelihood of long-distance airborne FMD transmission and examines the role of weather conditions in disease spread.
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Useful For
Long-distance airborne spread • Weather conditions • Epidemiology • FMD transmission
2006Explore
Evidence Framework
How to interpret FMD evidence
Different evidence sources answer different questions. Scientific studies help explain FMD biology and transmission mechanisms, while official surveillance and technical reports provide information about disease occurrence, emerging risks and control strategies.
01
Peer-reviewed research
Pathogenesis, diagnosis, virus shedding, transmission and airborne spread
02
WOAH surveillance
Disease status, outbreaks, hosts, serotypes and official international reporting
03
FAO / EuFMD evidence
Global disease situation, emerging risks, regional epidemiology and control strategies
04
Technical reports
Risk assessment, preparedness, prevention and practical disease-control recommendations
🔬
Evidence First
Reliable FMD intelligence should be based on traceable scientific publications, official surveillance records and authoritative technical assessments.
Peer-Reviewed Scientific Evidence
HIGHOfficial WOAH / FAO Surveillance
HIGHTechnical Risk Assessments
HIGHField Reports
VARIABLEℹ️
Source Integrity
FMD evidence should be interpreted using the original scientific publication, official WOAH or FAO surveillance record, or technical report. Scientific evidence can support understanding of disease mechanisms and control, but individual study findings should not automatically be interpreted as a guarantee of vaccine, treatment or control effectiveness.